Maize is frequently contaminated with multiple mycotoxins, especially those produced by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. As mycotoxin contamination is a critical factor that destabilizes global food safety, the current review provides an updated overview of the (co-)occurrence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides and (co-)contamination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in maize. Furthermore, it summarizes their interactions in maize. The gathered data predict the (co-)occurrence and virulence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides would increase worldwide, especially in European cold climate countries. Studies on the interaction of both fungi regarding their growth mainly showed antagonistic interactions in vitro or in planta conditions. However, the (co-)contamination of AFB1 and FB1 has risen worldwide in the last decade. Primarily, this co-contamination increased by 32% in Europe (2010–2020 vs. 1992–2009). This implies that fungi and mycotoxins would severely threaten European-grown maize.

Background

The post-parturient period in goat had marked changes in an animal’s endocrine and metabolic status as well as by reduction in feed intake when the nutrient demand for impending lactogenesis was increasing. The current study aimed to monitor the residues of oxytetracycline in Baladi goat milk and their hazards on public health as well as the time required until complete disappearance of this medicament from milk through following up periods included 0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96 and 120 h in post-kidding goat following intrauterine application of oxytetracycline. The study also compared between the efficacy of oxytetracycline only, oxytetracycline with oxytocin, or oxytetracycline with GnRH, through monitoring the clinical findings and haematological pictures at days 0, 5 and 7 post-partum as well as studying the changes in numbers and size of follicles at days 15, 30 and 45 postpartum after different treatments strategies in different groups i.e. Control healthy goat (Cont^gr), Oxytetracycline treated goat (Oxytet^gr), Oxytetracycline-oxytocin treated goat (Oxytet-Oxyto^gr) and Oxytetracycline-GnRH treated goat (Oxytet-GnRH^gr). The study was carried out on clinically healthy Baladi goats (n = 40) that gave birth recently. They were divided into 4 equal groups (n = 10 goats for each); Cont^gr which received no medication after birth, Oxytet^gr which administrated oxytetracycline tablets intrauterine at day of birth, Oxytet-Oxyto^gr which treated by oxytetracycline tablets intrauterine at day of birth followed by oxytocin injection at 3rd day after birth, and Oxytet-GnRH^gr which treated by oxytetracycline tablets intrauterine at day of birth followed by GNRH injection at 3rd day after birth.

Results and Conclusions

The study concluded the highest oxytetracyclines residues in goats’ milk were reported after 36 h following intrauterine oxytetracycline application where complete disappearance of oxytetracyclines residues in goats’ milk required 120 h elapsed after intrauterine oxytetracycline application in which the goats milk became safe for human consumption. The study also reported powerful influence of the applied variable therapeutic regimens on post-partum ovarian resumption through clear significant variations in numbers and sizes of follicles either between different goats’ groups within the same day, or between days 15, 30 and 45 post-partum within each independent goat group.